The Soviet German War essays

The Soviet German War expositions The Soviet-German War is the most ruthless scene of the most horrible war that humankind has ever observed (Clark 1). During the Great Patriotic War, as Joseph Stalin coins it, the Soviet Union rises through unadulterated constancy as one of the universes extraordinary superpowers. In spite of the fact that Stalin and the USSR develop successful, the penances made are tremendous (Clark 446). Assessments appear between 20-25 million Soviets bite the dust from 1941-1945. Just 7-8 million Germans kick the bucket during this equivalent period (Encarta). A large number of these passings are an immediate consequence of the splendid (in some cases crazy) chess coordinate between two of the most domineering pioneers ever: Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin. Indeed, even today, a few people contemplate which pioneer fits the counter Christ depiction best. The best method to break down the brains of these two chiefs is to inspect every tyrants ascend to control, the intentions which prompted the u nholy collusion, and the underlying hostile crusades that every despot dispatches. Conceived on December 21, 1877, Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvilis father is a boozer and his mom is a washer battling to help the family. Dzhugashvili will later be referred to the world as Joseph Stalin (Encarta). Stalins mother, Ekaterina Georgievna, is a devoted individual from the Orthodox Church and enters him into the Seminary at Tifilis(Georgia) in 1894 for the investigation of brotherhood in the Georgian Orthodox church. Not long after Stalin turns out to be a piece of the unlawful Marxist development (Encarta). The youthful Stalin rapidly ascends to the position of pioneer of his own Marxist circle. In May of 1899, he is removed from school barely shy of graduation in which later socialist writing criedits to political equalization (Encarta). At this point, Joseph Stalin has gotten more inundated in his job as an expert instigator of the framework. While functioning as a bookkeeper in Tbilisi, Stalin joins the Social-Democratic Workers Party. In 1900 and... <!

Poes The Raven Essay -- Edgar Allen Poe

Raven During a chilly, dim night in December, a man is endeavoring to discover some comfort from the recognition of his lost love, Lenore, by perusing volumes of overlooked legend. As he is about overwhelmed by sleep, a thump comes at his entryway. Having first accepted the thump to be just an aftereffect of his dreaming, he at long last opens the entryway contritely, yet is welcomed distinctly by haziness. A rush of half-wonder, half-dread defeats the speaker, and as he looks into the profound murkiness, he can just say Lenore. Upon shutting the entryway, another thump is promptly gotten notification from the chamber's window. The storyteller opens up the screen and window, and in stages an enormous, lovely raven, which quickly posts itself on the bust of Pallas Athena, the Greek goddess of insight, over the passage of the room. Interested by the creature, the speaker asks it its name, to which the winged animal answers Nevermore. Believing Nevermore to be the raven's name, the storytelle r's interest is aroused, yet the speaker accepts the name to have little importance to his inquiry, for he had at no other time known about any man or brute called by that name. In spite of the fact that the winged creature is quiet, the storyteller mumbles to himself that it, similar to every single other gift of his life, will before long leave him. Again the fowl answers Nevermore. Intrigued, the speaker pulls a seat up legitimately before the fledgling to all the more promptly direct his consideration on the wondrous mammoth, and to make sense of the significance of the winged creature's single repetitive answer. While in examination in the seat, the speaker's psyche goes to Lenore, and how her edge will never again favor the seat wherein he presently rests. Out of nowhere suffering from extreme melancholy, the persona accepts that the raven is a boon, proposed to convey him from his ang... ... end, and he ensured that no former verse would outperform this in rhythmical impact. Poe at that point worked in reverse from this verse and utilized Nevermore from numerous points of view, so that even with the reiteration of this word, it would not end up being dreary. Poe fabricates the strain in this sonnet up, refrain by verse, yet after the peaking refrain he tears the entire thing down, and tells the storyteller that there is no significance in scanning for a good in the raven's nevermore. The Raven is set up as an image for the storyteller's Sorrowful and endless recognition. And my spirit from out that shadow, that untruths skimming on the floor, will be lifted - nevermore! Works Cited Poe, Edgar Allen. The Raven. McQuade, 1688-91. Poe Edgar Allen. The Philosophy of Composition. McQuade 1671-79.

King Leopold's Ghost by Adam Hochschild Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ruler Leopold's Ghost by Adam Hochschild - Essay Example Obviously, modern upset turned into a significant device of progress among the whites and the blacks. Such huge numbers of Africans became doormats of white rulers basically in view of the idea of their standard. Moreover, a solid relationship existed among the whites and the colonialists that gave the blacks a conspicuous methodology of ensuring that a few issues were drawn closer in an innovatively stable manner. A few things of exchange like ivory, elastic, weapons, and steamships were essentially utilized by colonialists to upgrade their methodology and to give a superior method for understanding their objectives. During that specific time, slaves were the principle focus for provincial bosses (Hochschild 33). Additionally, new innovations encouraged colonization process by ensuring that all the pilgrim domains were overseen in an exceptionally controllable way. With the utilization of firearms, pilgrim experts occupied with unrivaled war strategies that at long last made a regio nal fight among the provincial bosses. A large portion of the pilgrim experts took an interest in a procedure that gave a sign of where different correspondence methodologies were rehearsed. With the sort of information that was accessible by at that point, numerous European forces chose to rehearse the demonstration of administering Africa with an iron clench hand. With the utilization of innovation not withstanding, there meant that numerous nations in African were not prepared for any sort of sort of initiative that could demolish their activity. Utilization of predominant weapons, for example, firearms and successful methods for transport enabled the colonialists to control the Africans in a way that reflected compelling impulse for administration. Mechanical insurgency offered numerous African countries a chance to comprehend the quality of pilgrim aces. All the important viewpoints were considered by pioneer experts. It is certain to bring up that all the parts of expansionism began from the longing by frontier experts to offer the best of their administrations in Africa. In any case, a significant number of provincial gatherings put together their prosperity with respect to the utilization of unrivaled weapons and innovation. An ideal representation of innovation application is the point at which the Africans are colonized from a viewpoint that isn't the desire of the numerous neighborhood individuals (Hochschild 76). Once more, the accomplishment of colonialists was fundamentally because of utilization of prevalent weapons. Africans were vanquished in light of the fact that numerous colonialists were utilizing profoundly unrivaled weapons. For instance, there was no chance an African was permitted to utilize a firearm during the war. This was just a procedure by numerous colonialists to maintain a strategic distance from the sabotaging of open picture. There was a recognition by then that Africans could make effectively in any fight if their weapons we re unrefined and sub-par. Additionally, the pilgrim experts in many pieces of the African mainland chose to examine the impact brought about by such sort of fights in like manner individuals. The result in this way uncovered plainly that such huge numbers of individuals inside the mainland had a solid observation about the imperialism and its negative impacts. A definitive effect of the innovative methodologies turned into the last sign of how African settlements could be controlled (Hochschild 45). The murdering of numerous Congolese never showed up in the American news and media just in light of the fact that African was seen as a dim landmass. The slaughter went unnoticed and numerous individuals were murdered with the utilization of predominant weapons. In contrast to the Nazi slaughter in Germany, the executing of such a significant number of

Questions On Reading An Article About The Carry Trades - 825 Words

Questions On Reading An Article About The Carry Trades (Essay Sample) Content: The Carry TradesAn Assignment Submitted byName of StudentName of InstitutionInvestors in different places globally are making money/gathering profits through a trading strategy called carry trade. This is a popular trade among many multinational investors, both big and small. This trade involves two currencies namely funding currency and target currency. A funding currency is one with lower interest rates while a target currency is one with higher interest rates. Now, this trading strategy assumption of how a carry trader would expect to make a profit is when he or she borrows money in a country whose currency is weak and whose interests are low, meaning the borrowing is cheap, and then invests the borrowed money in another country whose interest rates are higher, then at the end of the investment term, the investor can exchange the foreign currency returns with its interests back to a currency with low interest rates in order to gain profits.In addition, for an inves tor to gain profits without worrying about exchange rate risks, the exchange rate at the end of the investment period must be relatively unchanged, meaning it should be the same as initial rate when an investor started the investment, otherwise an investor might risk losses.Although this is a popular trade, there are a number of risks an investor may encounter. One of the risks is about economic changes that may happen in a country or a region especially when an investor has invested his or her money in a country that initially had a high rate of interest and then the currency in that country starts to tumble, this will mean uncertainty of exchange rates and probably a loss for the investor. Another risk within the carry trade is the volatility aspect within the foreign exchange markets. A higher volatility in the foreign exchange market will create difficulty in employing this trade because the markets that present a high interest rate gap in most cases present higher currency vola tility and a sudden weakening of the purchased target currency could generate losses and this is a higher trading risk involved for investors.Now, this popular carry trade involves the exchange of two currencies. The two currencies involved are funding currency and target currency. Usually, a funding currency is one with a low interest rate and a target currency is one which investors are interested in because of its performance, meaning it is a currency with a higher interest rate. Therefore, what investors do is borrow money in a country whose currency is weak and has a lower interest rate then invest the money in a country whose currency has a higher interest rate, then at the end of investment period, the investor exchanges back the investments earnings into a currency with a lower interest rate in order to know how much profit he or she has gained.Now, according to the article, a number of funding currencies as well as target currencies have been mentioned. Below is a list of t hese currencies.The funding currencies mentioned are; * European Euro * Japanese YenThe target currencies mentioned are; * Indian Rupee * Indonesian Rupiah * Philippine Peso * Australian Dollar * South African RandAmong these currencies, some are considered unconventional because it is unusual to think of funding trades for target currencies such as rupees with funding currency such as Euros. This means that an investor should sell a funding currency in order to buy a target currency but not vice versa.According to the article, Paul Lambert talked about the recent session of volatility in foreign exchange markets which has made employment of the popu...

Analysis Of The Universal Health Care System - 1688 Words

Canadas publicly-funded universal health care system is a direct representation of Canadas fundamental values of equality (What are Canadian Values?, 2017). However, of all high-income countries that have implemented a universal health care program (Lopert, 2017), Canada is the only country that has yet to include prescription drugs within their universal health coverage plan (Martin, 2017, p. 90). Provinces are now demanding a public insurance plan for prescription medications, but pharmaceutical innovations are at risk if Canadian negotiators are not able to reach a consensus with U.S. demands during the renegotiation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) (Lopert, 2017). In order for Canada to achieve a universal†¦show more content†¦If only one pharmaceutical manufacturer imports medication from the U.S., costs of prescription drugs will significantly rise for Canadians (Lopert, 2017) because if there is no competition, the manufacturer is free to set the med ication prices. It will ultimately be these trade policies, over health policies (Galea, 2017), that causes disturbance to Canadas progress in establishing a national pharmacare program. Reality is, these conflicts are arising due to different political-ideological values that cause the nations to react differently to the same global forces (Petrin, 2017). Fear has returned as a global epidemic force and when fear comes back, it leads to more rules, regulation, and violence (Petrin, 2017). This current issue regarding NAFTA is also a result of the world being in a state of fear for their economies (Petrin, 2017). It was the globalization of money that caused the Great Recession of 2008, and the U.S. is the economic nerve of the world (Petrin, 2017) which caused this to become the Global Economic Crisis of 2008 (Amadeo, n.d.). In order to target this economical fear, the U.S. has taken a nationalistic approach in respect of their nationalistic ideological values while Canada and Mexico have taken the globalist approach (Petrin, 2017). Trump believes that the U.S. must stepShow MoreRelatedThe Theory Of Health Literacy788 Words   |  4 Pagesto research health literacy in relation to access and outcome. From a theoretical perspective, researchers assessed the concepts of â€Å"health communication, health disparities, health literacy, literacy, microrange theory, military health system, patient education, theoretical framework, universal access† (p. 308). To study the phenomenon of health literacy, they â€Å"present a conceptual framework adapted for use in studying health literacy in population groups with universal access to care† (p. 309).Read MoreUniversal Health Care: Do Time and Place Matter? Essay878 Words   |  4 Pages Universal health care models are currently adopted by many countries worldwide. Although a superficial look at these systems may show many similarities, a detailed analysis shows differences in their philosophies, standards of care, delivery models, and recipients’ expectations. This paper takes a closer look at the universal health care models in Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, Germany, and Japan in comparison to the American system. Gold standards of health care services Gold standards ofRead MoreThe United States Should Provide Universal Health Care For All Of Its Citizens857 Words   |  4 Pagesas a whole (The Institute of Medicine). II. Today I will provide arguments showing you why the United States should provide a Universal Health Care for all of its citizens. III. After conducting thorough research on this topic, I am here to share this information with you today. Tie to the audience: Am sure that there is someone that you know that might need health care and cannot afford it or even you have found yourselves in this same place while in between jobs. IV. Today I’d like to talk toRead MoreSicko1326 Words   |  6 Pages[Rhetorical Analysis Assignment (1)] (4 full pp. double-spaced) Sicko Analysis In 2007 documentary Sicko Michael Moore addresses the issue of America’s health care system. This topic has been in continuous debate among our political leaders for many years now. Michael Moore believes America’s health system is morally corrupt which is unreasonable for being the wealthiest country in the world. In many instances throughout the film, he argues the fact that the American health care system is subjectRead MorePublic Long Term Care Insurance Of Germany, Japan, And The United States1427 Words   |  6 Pageshealthcare system. Campbell, Ikegami, and Gibson (2009) provided an analysis of the healthcare systems in Germany, Japan, and the United States in their article ‘Lessons From Public Long-Term Care Insurance in Germany and Japan’ (Campbell, Ikegami, Gibson, 2009). 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Universal health care is not aRead MoreHomeless Adults : A Comprehensive Assessment Of Health Care Utilization1486 Words   |  6 PagesHomeless Adults Health Care Utilization under Universal Health Insurance in California A review of the article: A Comprehensive Assessment of Health Care Utilization Among Homeless Adults Under a System of Universal Health Insurance Hwang, S.W., Chambers, C., Chiu, S., Katic, M., Kiss, A., Redelmeier, D.A., Levinson, W. (2013). A Comprehensive Assessment of Health Care Utilization Among Homeless Adults Under a System of Universal Health Insurance. American Journal of Public Health, 103(S2), 294-Read MoreConcept Analysis Of Orems Self Care Deficit Theory1552 Words   |  7 PagesA Concept Analysis of Orem’s Self-Care Deficit Introduction Dorothea E. Orem devoted her life to defining nursing and the nurse’s role in improving the patient’s overall health, which she coined the Self-Care Deficit Theory. Orem’s theory is quite a complex one, which can be simplified by identifying that it is three theories in one: self-care theory, self-care deficit theory and nursing systems theory. In 1959, as Orem first began the evolution of the Self-Care Deficit Theory, she defined theRead MoreInternational Healthcare Comparisons1741 Words   |  7 PagesEven with this large amount of healthcare spending, the U.S. has almost 50 million residents without health insurance and 29 million who are underinsured (The Commonwealth Fund, 2012). Tanner (2008) estimates â€Å"total U.S. healthcare spending exceeds $1.8 trillion dollars, more than Americans spend on housing, food, national defense, or automobiles† (p.2). The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) was passed in the U.S. in 2010, and is projected to decrease the number of uninsured by 30Read MoreCanada s Health Care System973 Words   |  4 PagesCanada’s health care system is one that formed in the 1950s and 60s, also known as Medicare. It is a system that Canada as a nation often takes pride in, as it is predominantly public with basic health care is available to all citizens, and has some aspects of the private system incorporated as well. Health care often occurs in terms that compare public versus private health care systems. After a thorough analysis of private health care associated with neo-conservatism, and public health care associated

Essay on Happiness Is My Ultimate Personal Goal - 873 Words

It is enormously difficult to sit down and write a personal goal that is concise and reflects who I am and what I am working towards. Many goals that I have do not have a concise finish line. Others that do have an ending point seem almost miniscule against the larger backdrop of my life. Some broader goals that I have are to never let my life stagnate, constantly be learning, live happy, and to empathize with everyone I can. I have more than just these goals, but many other goals can fall under or fit within these previous four goals. In fact, these four goals fit within each other. For example, it may be my goal to empathize with other people so that I can learn something new from their perspective. In learning something new my life†¦show more content†¦This is a huge reason as to why I have chosen Materials Engineering as my major. On this planet we have a limited amount of resources and we need scientists and engineers to be able to work together with policy makers and the public to figure out solutions that are sustainable. One particular interest that I would like to be able to work on sometime in my life is making consumer electronic products more recyclable. Another field I find interesting is designing polymeric materials that can be made from indus trial or agricultural waste and will biodegrade so that we have less plastic siting in landfills and filling up dumps. My reasons as to why I am applying to the NASA LARSS Program are greatly related to the goals I have previously mentioned. I believe that the National Aeronautics and Space Administration is a fantastic organization with many talented and brilliant people working for it. There are a lot of very unique material challenges when it comes to flight and space travel. For example Jet engines must operate at extraordinarily hot temperatures to booster efficiency. But in this extreme environment many materials would exhibit different and probably less desirable properties than at lower temperatures. It is the job of the materials scientist to develop new materials and engineer current ones so that these jet engines can perform reducing overall cost and consumption. Between engines, heat shields, whipple shields, to even whatShow MoreRelatedHappiness Essay982 Words   |  4 PagesHappiness is most prominent in those that are fortunate. Those with many friends, a supportive family, and an abu ndance of material goods are the happiest. Aristotle teaches that happiness is the ultimate goal in a successful life. It is a sense of fulfillment that comes to all who are blessed. Happiness is acquired through competence and prosperity. It is a reward to all who flourish in life. Those born into poverty and anguish are more likely to be miserable than happy. It is highly necessary forRead MoreThe Pursuit Of Happiness : Time, Money, And Social Connections1570 Words   |  7 Pagesis very debatable. Happiness can last anywhere from a fraction of a second to possibly a lifetime. The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines being happy as â€Å"feeling pleasure and enjoyment because of your life, situation, etc..† Although there are a few set definitions for the word, the definition of happiness can range from person to person. Most people define happiness by naming material things in their life as well as people. Setting goals to achieve one’s definition of happiness can ca use them toRead MoreMy Cultural Conception Of Happiness1296 Words   |  6 Pageswant happiness and do not want suffering . . .† That being said, people from different cultures want to be happy. The only thing that differs between cultures is how each distinct culture perceives how happiness can be achieved. Such is true for the conception of happiness between my culture, the American culture, and the Indian culture. While the conception of happiness across my culture and the conception of happiness across Indian culture are both individualistic, the conception of happiness inRead MoreThe Utilitarianism By John Stuart Mill984 Words   |  4 Pagesare right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness†(7). The idea behind the theory is that people seek happiness, and that the ultimate goal of all human beings is to be happy. Therefore, according to the utilitarianism greatest happiness principle, when a person w ishes to act in an ethically sound manner, he or she should strive to bring about the greatest possible amount of happiness for the greatest possible amount of people. In contrastRead MoreEssay on Personal Ethical System 1356 Words   |  6 PagesPersonal ethical system We human beings live in a society. The society or the social world we live in is based on human cooperation. In other words, the individuals in a society do not live in an isolated self-centered world. The human interactive system presupposes ethical and moral standpoint from which we operate. My personal ethical system is based on â€Å"service before self† and â€Å"love your neighbors as yourself†. The question that I wish to address in context of these two principlesRead MoreHappiness What is happiness? Probably, this is one of the most difficult concepts. The meaning of800 Words   |  4 PagesHappiness What is happiness? Probably, this is one of the most difficult concepts. The meaning of happiness cannot be reached treasures of gold and silver, because it is more precious than gold and silver. Everyone knows happiness by his desires, outlook on life, and the lifestyle. For example, people think that happiness is when you understand or when you have money. They aspire to this life, and when they get to realize that happiness is not the case. Poor people think that happiness is money,Read MoreWe Need A Common Bonds Of Moral Rules Essay1592 Words   |  7 PagesIt is my opinion that we need a common bonds of moral rules in any society as guideline for living in safe harmonious community. Therefore, it goes beyond bounds of self-interest as morals is part of fabric of any society. The history of moral philosophy is proposed to justify why people should act morally, but these reasons of being moral remain controversial. Rationalizing why human beings should act morally is not an easy task when seen as part of community fabric. This question would be moreRead More Placing Me Before We in Ayn Rands Anthem Essay1128 Words   |  5 Pagesliberty, and the happiness of self-interest. Equality 7-2521 writes three unique phrases in his journal: nbsp;1. My happiness needs no higher aim to vindicate it. My happiness is not the means to an end. It is the end., 2. We know that we are evil, but there is no will in us and no power to resist it., 3. The word We . . . must never be placed first within mans soul.. nbsp;These phrases will be discussed individually in the remainder of this essay. nbsp; 1. My happiness needs no higherRead MoreReaction To Who Moved My Cheese By Spencer Johnson Essay1211 Words   |  5 Pagesas they related to Johnsons message, my life, and to each other. Now, after writing this paper, I can assert that this story appeals to its audience on a level much more personal than their career. The story assists ones self in diminishing a fear of change. It is this core purpose that has the potential to influence the many facets of a humans life, be it in the workplace, love, or another achievement. It is through this personal appeal that I will write my reaction to the text. Spencer JohnsonRead MoreAggression Is An Instinctive Drive That People Are Born With1210 Words   |  5 Pagesthink about how I help my family with the income from work, instead of acting out of rage and aggression at the work place. Strengthening the internal mechanisms is the key to self-regulation and control. Explain the factors that influence happiness, being sure to discuss the relationship between wealth and happiness. What makes people happy can differ from person to person. Just as personalities often dictates one’s emotion, so does different factors dictate someones happiness. It has been reported

Death Changes free essay sample

Changes in Death Management Practices One of the first noted changes in the book regarding attitudes towards death can be seen with the advances in mass media. As Technology has advanced, so have the ways in which news is reported to the world. Radio, Television, and the Internet have given the public many ways of receiving information. When situations portray a perceived threat, people turn to mass media for information. The ability to access information regarding worldwide disasters, terrorism, and other acts of brutality make us feel like survivors of death. Because we are able to see and hear about things that we have no firsthand knowledge of, we feel like we are experiencing it to some degree. (DeSpelder, Strickland pg. 6) During the Vietnam War, television gave people access to images of things that were happening half a world away. In no other time were daily doses of violence to this degree a part of everyday life. Media analyst George Gerbner observed that these depictions of death evoked a heightened sense of danger, insecurity, and mistrust which contributed to an â€Å"irrational dread of dying and thus to diminished vitality and self-direction in life† (DeSpelder, Strickland pg. 8) Life expectancy and Mortality Rates have been affected by technology as well. In 1900, the average life expectancy was 47 years of age in the United States. As of 2005, the average life expectancy rose to 78 years of age. This rise can be attributed to epidemiologic transition which moves the largest number of deaths from the young to the old. In the early days people died from infection due to lack of medication and knowledge on how to treat and prevent. As this knowledge was gained, deaths tended to be from chronic disease processes that are common in the older population rather than young. In 1900, over half of deaths that occurred were to children under the age of 14. That number has decreased to less than 2% and this fact influences how we feel and think about death. (DeSpelder, Strickland pg. 36) In the 1870’s, nine out of ten Americans over the age of 15 had lost a parent or a sibling. Because medicine and medical care was not advanced, mother’s died during child birth and/or babies were born still born due to lack of prenatal knowledge and care advancement. The family unit was very important and often people in this time period would display postmortem pictures of loved ones who had passed as a testament to this family unit and the common knowledge of their mortality. One other change that has taken place is death rituals. In the early 1900’s families were more likely to be multigenerational living in the same house. People tended to intermingle with other generations out of necessity. Families lived on large homesteads and it took everyone to make it work. Because of this, multiple generations were present at the death of older family members and rituals and traditions existed. In this day and age people are more mobile and on the move. It is harder to maintain close relationships with family when you don’t live in the same state, let alone city. People appear to be less affected by the death of an older relative when the closeness of the relationship has been lost due to sheer proximity. Several changes that can be discussed regarding children are their attitudes towards death, their functional ability to understand death, and their desensitization to violence regarding death. Children’s attitudes towards death are much different in this day and age from in the late 1800’s or early 1900’s. In that time, families tended to live together in extended family situations possibly on homesteads. There was less access to medical care and things were taken care of at home. Death was something that was seen as a natural part of the living process and happened more regularly because of the generations that cohabitated. In this day and age as generations tend to live separately, children are more sheltered from this and therefore tend to look at death as something that doesn’t directly affect them. Jean Piaget, a theorist in human development, did extensive study of children and divided them into approximate age groups and developmental periods. He theorized that we develop our knowledge based on things we already know. These stages are sensorimotor from birth to 2 years when children learn based on their senses and motor abilities and begin to develop the idea of object permanence where they understand an object is still present even when it can’t be seen. Preoperational from 2-7 years where they progress from egocentric thought where they look at things as if they are the center of the world to prelogical where they learn trial and error and can begin to understand other points of view. Concrete operational from 7-12 years where they are able to logically understand and organize information and begin to think forward and backward about experiences. And finally, Formal operational from 12 years and up where they can think hypothetically and abstractly about situations and begin to have an interest in ethical situations. . (DeSpelder, Strickland pg. 2-53) Before these types of theorists existed, death was considered a natural part of the living experience and children just dealt with it like the rest of the family. Also in early years when children talked about death, it tended to be in the context of disease processes and accidents. As the culture has, advanced children are routinely exposed to things they weren’t before. If you ask, a child now days what things are that can cause death you may hear things like gunshot wounds and other traumatic experiences that can be linked to crime, violence they see on TV or video games or inner city experiences. In a cultural or historical sense differences in how dying is perceived can be from a cultural standpoint. Different religious and ethnical cultures have different practices and beliefs regarding death but as we have become more culturally competent society, the varying beliefs have become better understood. The physical cause of dying has changed simply by historical differences in living conditions. For example, in the Stone Age people were more likely to have died from trauma and animal attacks, whereas today dying from frailty, organ failure and dementia are more common. One change in regards to mortality and society where death is concerned can be related to education and training. For example, an earthquake in Japan in 1923 caused the death of 100,000 people. Today, because of advances in technology and safety we have ways to warn people of dangerous weather situations and have developed better safety practices that if followed can save many lives. . (DeSpelder, Strickland pg. 135-136) Change has also been seen in the conventional signs of death. Most deaths are determined by the absence of heartbeat and breathing. With the advances in technology and medicine, though, it is possible for mechanical ventilation and medications to artificially maintain these functions while the brain is termed dead. For this reason, the concept of brain death was created. Another innovation that has changed death is organ transplantation. Before this was discovered and perfected people had no choice but to die if they fell victim to an irreversible organ failure. Now, through organ donation and transplantation people can live long and productive lives if they can receive these lifesaving procedures. The final three changes that will be discussed are in regards to patients, staff, and institutions in the field of Health care. In 1900, about 80% of deaths in the United States took place in the home. As the invention of hospitals and other institutions took place, this shifted to the institutional setting with more people dying in hospital or nursing home setting. There is beginning to be a shift again however as hospice care becomes an option available to more and more people that allow them to stay in their homes around familiar surroundings instead of the sterile, non-personal setting of a hospital or institution. Another change that has taken place with regards to dying could be the rationing of resources. This will undoubtedly be getting even worse under Obamacare. Physicians used to be considered the gate keepers of what services and treatments were reasonably appropriate to which patients. As managed care comes more and more into the picture, this will change. Physicians will be paid a certain amount of money per month by insurance companies to manage the patients’ health. The less procedures, tests, and resources that are used the more money the physician will get to keep. This leads to the fear that rationing of resources or withholding of resources is a real possibility in order to keep from bankrupting doctors and clinics. Finally, palliative care, and end of life decisions are changing as well. There have been many advances with the advent of hospice and what can be done to allow a natural and peaceful death for those that are not interested in prolonging it. Undoubtedly, we will all die one day. There has been a shift in recent years from death being an almost taboo topic to one where people are taking control of their decisions. This is an area I am passionate about. You can take control of your end of life decisions by an advanced directive and informing your family members of your wishes. There are people who know they want every intervention possible done to keep them alive and there are those that are accepting of their own mortality, comfortable with their idea of what happens after death, and know that they want nothing heroic done to try and keep them on this earth if they cannot be an active participant.

Perfect Competition and Monopoly Essay Example

Perfect Competition and Monopoly Essay Perfect Competition and Monopoly (a) I. Explain perfect competition and monopoly market structures, and identify the key factors that distinguish them. Perfect Competition Market In economic theory, the perfect competition is a market form in which no producer or consumer has the power to influence prices in the market. According to the website wordIQ. com, in order to classify the market is a perfect competition market, the market must match below criteria: 1. There are a large number of small producers and consumers on a given market 2. None of the producers or consumers can influence the price on their own (ie. Price takers) 3. Goods and services are perfect substitute (ie. The goods or services is homogeneous) 4. All resources are perfectly mobile 5. There is no transaction cost 6. The price is determined at the level that equates supply and demand, and moves instantaneously to equilibrium Monopoly Market Structure A monopoly market structure is completely different from the perfect market structure. It is a persistent market, with one and only supplier of the particular product or service. Since there is only one supplier, it can control the supply level, and therefore, it has the power to influence prices in the market. Key factors that distinguish Perfect Competition Market and Monopoly Market Structure There are three main factors to distinguish a Perfect Competition Market and a Monopoly Market structures, which are seller entry barriers, number of sellers, and the nature of the products. Seller entry barrier is one of the key factors. For Perfect Competition market, there is no or little barrier. We will write a custom essay sample on Perfect Competition and Monopoly specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Perfect Competition and Monopoly specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Perfect Competition and Monopoly specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer For seller entry barriers, they include government regulations, patents, import/export restrictions or large investment and start up costs. According to Sloman and Norris (1997), there is complete freedom of entry for firms and established firms are unable to stop new firms entering the market. Number of seller is also a factor to determine whether the market is a perfect competition market or a monopoly market. For a perfect competition market, the number of seller in the market is one, and there is no other competitors in the market. On the other hand, there are many sellers in the market, and each seller is competing against each other. Also, since there is a great competition in the market, it is more difficult to gain market share than it is in the monopoly market. The nature of the product/service is another factor to distinguish between these two market structures. According to Duffy (1993), in the perfect competition market, the products sold as homogeneous since there is no differentiation between what the firms sell, and consumers are able to buy same product from many different sellers, at a similar price. However, in the monopoly market, the product is only available from a particular seller, and buyer cannot buy the product from other sellers. II. Choose two different industries from your home country representing perfect competition and monopoly, and identify their key characteristics in relation to the factors used to differentiate between the market structures. â€Å"Yum Cha† Market in Hong Kong Food and Beverage market is one of the examples of Perfect Competition markets in Hong Kong, and there are many businesses in this market. The businesses in this market include restaurants, fast food stores, pubs, etc. Yum Cha† is synonymous with eating Dim Sum, and it is a Cantonese Cuisine, which is very popular in Hong Kong, therefore, the â€Å"Yum Cha† market is very large in Hong Kong. To prove that the â€Å"Yum Cha† market is a perfect competition market, three factors will be used, which are seller entry barriers, number of sellers, and the nature of the products. For â€Å"Yum Cha† Market, seller entry barrier is very little. To setup a restaurant in Hong Kong, entrepreneur need to ensure the business meets the hygiene and fire safety requirements, and apply the license from the government. Apart from the required government license, there is no other license required. There is a large number of Cantonese Cuisine restaurants in Hong Kong, and it is another factor to identify that this is a perfect competition market. The nature of product in this market can also prove that this is a perfect competition market. The product is this market is homogeneous, and the dim sum served by each restaurant is similar. Consumers can eat similar dim sum at different restaurants, at similar price. Public Buses Market in Hong Kong Unlike Australia, most people in Hong Kong use public transport for their daily life, since Hong Kong is a small place, and driving in this place involves many obstacles, such as traffic jam problem, difficult to find parking spaces, etc. Public buses are one of the most common public transport in Hong Kong, and public buses market is an example of monopoly markets in Hong Kong. To prove this is a monopoly market, previously identified key factors will be used. There is a big entry barrier for this industry, and it is almost impossible for new entrant to this market. There are three bus service providers in Hong Kong, and each of them serves different territory. For example, Kowloon Motor Bus (KMB) Company serves Kowloon and New Territories. KMB has the exclusive license from the Hong Kong Government, and it has rights to provide bus services, subject to approval from the government. Although KMB has the right to operate and provide services, it is monitored by the government, and government applied many restriction to them, such as routes, fares, service hours, fleets, etc. With the exclusive licenses and many government restrictions, it makes a big barrier for the new entrant to this market. As mention, KMB is the only bus service provider in Kowloon and New Territories, therefore, the number of service provider is one, and this meets the requirement of being a monopoly market. For the nature of product, there is no buses allowed to be operated in Kowloon and the New Territories, therefore, this service is unique in the area, and bus users cannot choose the service from other providers. III. Discuss (with examples) how the monopolist can practice price discrimination Price discrimination is a pricing technique that is used by monopolist, used to maintain an economic profit. With this technique, seller charges different customers different prices for the same product, not justified by cost differences. For example, mobile phone service provider, â€Å"Three Hong Kong†, is the exclusive official supplier of Apple iPhone 4 in Hong Kong. In other words, the market for iPhone 4 is a monopoly market. â€Å"Three Hong Kong† is applying price discrimination technique in the price setting of iPhone 4. For example, for the mobile phone users with high volume usage, the price of the handset is lower than the users with low volume of usage. IV. Using your case study of monopoly provide an argument for and against monopoly. Argument for monopoly In the monopoly market, there is no competition in the market, and businesses do not need to lower their prices to compete with competitors, and this can ensure that the businesses would able to make an acceptable profit and to provide reasonable level of service to their customers. Many monopoly market is monitored by the government or other government agencies, and this can ensure the services or goods are of reasonable level of quality. Also, there would be a way for the customers to make complaint against the company. Argument against monopoly One of the argument against monopoly is the market is lack of competition, and the monopoly business does not have motivation to make any innovation to improve its product or service. Also, in the monopoly market, business has power to influence the supply level and have great influence to affect the price level. In this structure of market, consumers cannot choose their preferred suppliers and have no power to influence the price level. (b) I. Choose a case study from your home country where an externality exists in a current market. Illustrate the situation and the resulting deadweight loss in a diagram and discuss ways that your government has addressed the presence of negative externalities in the market. Petroleum industry is an example of industry with externality in the market. There are many petrol stations in Hong Kong, with different brand names, and we assume that this is a perfect competition market. If there is no externality in this market, we would conclude that the private cost that customers pay is same as social cost, and the private benefit is same as the social benefit gained. However, there is social cost in this market, which is the air pollution. Air pollution is a serious problem in Hong Kong today, and government is trying very hard to improve this problem. There are many sources of the air pollution problem, and the use of private car is one of the sources. Air pollution also indirectly increase other social costs, such as health problem. If we take into account of the social cost, the market is inefficient. The diagram below illustrate the problem. In the diagram below, if we do not take into account of social cost, the price would be at Pp and quanityt would be at Qp. However, if we take into account of social cost, the price would be at Ps at quantity of Qs. For gas station to sell, the marginal social benefit must exceed the marginal social cost. The government has addressed to this externality by applying taxes on each litre of petrol sold. With this petrol tax, people are discouraged to drive their own car as transport, and this would help to minimize the pollution problem. II. Suggest other options for dealing with negative externalities in your case studies (relate this back to your answer in part (i)). Other options for dealing with air pollution can be enforce car owners to send the cars to have regular inspection on the emission control system, and this can ensure all vehicles on the road would not cause great problem to air quality. Also, the government can impose toll on some main roads or highways, and this can discourage people to drive their own cars. And this would help to lower the air pollution problem. WordIQ website 2010, Perfect Competition Definition, accessed 16 August 2010, . Duffy, J. , (1993), Economics, Cliffs Notes Inc, USA. Sloman, J Norris, K. , (1999), Economics, Prentice Hall, Australia.

How to Convert Miles to Kilometers - Example Problem

How to Convert Miles to Kilometers Problem The method to convert miles to kilometers is demonstrated in this worked example problem. A mile (mi) is a unit of distance used in the United States, particularly for travel. The rest of the world uses kilometers (km). Miles To Kilometers Problem The distance between New York City, New York, and Los Angeles, California is 2445 miles. What is this distance in kilometers? Solution Start out with the conversion factor between miles and kilometers: 1 mile 1.609 km Set up the conversion so that the desired unit will be canceled out. In this case, we want kilometers to be the remaining unit.distance in km (distance in mi) x (1.609 km/1 mi)distance in km (2445) x (1.609 km/1 mi)distance in km 3934 km Answer The distance between New York City, New York, and Los Angeles, California is 3934 kilometers. Be sure to check your answer. When you convert from miles to kilometers, your answer in kilometers will be about one and a half times larger than the original value in miles. You dont need a calculator to see whether or not your answer makes sense. Just make sure its a larger value, but not so big that its twice the original number, Kilometer to Miles Conversion When you work the conversion the other way from kilometers to miles the answer in miles is a bit more than half the original value. A runner decides to run a 10k race. How many miles is it? To solve the problem, you can use the same conversion factor or you can use the conversion: 1 km 0.62 mi This is easier because the units cancel out (basically just multiply a distance in km times 0.62). distance in miles 10 km x 0.62 mi/km distance in miles 6.2 miles

TESCO Marketing and Healthy Living Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

TESCO Marketing and Healthy Living - Essay Example In 1979, TESCO attained a landmark by having sales of up to one billion pounds. In 1982, the sales of the business doubled, and it had sales of up to two billion pounds. In the same year, the company put up some of the computerized checkouts. The company also was the first to initiate nutritional value of its brand through an initiative referred to as ‘Healthy Eating’. The initiative made the company obtain more consumers because people were interested in the services that it offered. As a result, in 1991, it became one of the biggest independent and petrol retail sellers in Britain. Within few years, the company launched new services and products that included computers for schools, ‘Every little Helps’, and TESCO Organic range. Within a year, TESCO was in a position to improve its customer services through the customer champion’s policy stores. Through the policy, the company became an organic retailer in the UK market (Kingd, Lannon & Baskin 2007, p.90). Healthy brandIn 1985, TESCO launched the healthy eating initiative. The aim of the initiative was to provide customers with information on nutrition and health and the foods that are made for a healthier diet. The company was classified as the leading food retailer in Britain. TESCO also obtained a unique position to communicate with its customers and receive feedback. The customers gave feedback on their current needs and attitudes. TESCO provided information on the food that they eat and where they shop.

Differentiated Instruction for Student Readiness Essay

Differentiated Instruction for Student Readiness - Essay Example A statewide assessment of teachers in California recognized the top three challenges facing high school teachers regarding English language learners (Gibbons, 2002). The leading problem is communicating with English-language learners regarding academic, personal and social issues. The second challenge is motivating and encouraging English-language learners. The final challenge is addressing the diverse and individual needs of English-language learners in both English-language acquisition and academic skills. Critics have, however, proved that if teachers improve on their skill, then they will be in a better position to teach these ELL students (Cruz, 2005). Therefore, on to the thesis, this article is addressed particularly to teachers, as well as administrators in schools, which have bilingual, or dual language programs, but lack proper strategies of implementing them. The article will describe strategies that will help educators scaffold content along with language learning for ELL s. It will also suggest likely steps in implementing some of the vital elements of the strategies and direct educators to additional resources. These strategies are derived from numerous research studies from the past years that recognize effective methods for improving English language learners’ content knowledge. It also focuses on ways of improving English along with other subjects such as math, history, literature and science. Vocabulary and Language Development Content Knowledge The first strategy is vocabulary and language development whereby teachers or educators introduce fresh concepts through discussing vocabulary, which is vital to the concept being taught (Helmer & Eddy, 1996). Exploring crucial academic terms, such as algorithm, starts a sequence of lessons on greater math concepts, as well as the student’s background knowledge. Educators could join student-accessible concepts or synonyms to the essential vocabulary. Educators could also help students in d ifferentiating word meanings and their uses for subject-specific duties and prerequisite language skills (Gibbons, 2002). Academic Language It is essential to engage beginning-level learners in using the basic social and school phrases, vocabulary, as well as sentence structures (Gibbons, 2002). As the ELLs progress, educators should continue to contextualize instruction of complex language forms and uses. Teachers can, at this point, incorporate subject-specific vocabulary, sentences and grammatical forms in the readings and writings in the class (Helmer & Eddy, 1996). Sample Activities and Assessments Assessing the progress of these students could be done in a variety of ways such as word analysis and interactive editing (Hu & Nation, 2002). Word analysis involves practices such as ELLs dissecting words into their parts like prefix, suffix and root. Interactive editing, on the other hand, involves noting cloze paragraphs, reading subject-specific journals and dictations. Finally, when assessing the progress of ELLs, it essential to give them journals or A-B-C books to read out loud to the educators to check on their progress (Nation, 2001). Guided Interaction Content Knowledge Guided instructions assist teachers to structure lessons for students to learn together so as to understand what they read (Nation, 2001). This can be achieved through, speaking, listening, reading, as

Repton School Essay Example for Free

Repton School Essay Amit Ruparel, 15, is a boarder at Repton School, doing his GCSEs. He lives in Derby with his parents, brother and sister. I wake up at around half-past seven with a big yawn. I then get up, grab my towel and shower gel, go downstairs and have a shower. Every time I wake up at this time of the morning I think if I were at home I would be still asleep. As soon as I have had my shower I go back upstairs and get changed. I then go downstairs for breakfast, which is compulsory. For breakfast I have a bowl of cereal and a glass of fresh orange juice. I like eating cereal at any time of the day. I think that it is nice at any point of the day. I also believe that fresh orange juice is really good for you. Recently I have been trying to be careful with my diet due to my weight, I am trying to eat as healthier as possible. When I have had my breakfast I go upstairs and check if I have any unfinished prep to do and if I do then I get on with it. If I have not got any unfinished prep or any other work to be getting on with I turn on my computer and play some games. My computer is a very important part of my life; I could not do much with out it. I have always used the computer wherever I can; I use it for my work as well as playing on it when I am bored. I get my books ready a few minutes later so I leave the house five minutes before the lessons start or even earlier, so that I do not get punished for being late to a lesson. My school is like a mini village in where by you do not have to walk so far, therefore I do not have to leave to go to school so early. The first lesson starts at ten to nine and ends at half past nine. I then have a five-minute break, which I get between every lesson. After the third lesson I have a break for half an hour. During the break I usually get myself a drink and a snack to eat. At one oclock, after the fifth lesson, I have lunch, which lasts around forty minutes. I then go to my room and listen to music on my computer for ten to fifteen minutes, then get my books and go to the last three lessons, which finish at four oclock, unless I have a half day. If so I will carry on playing on my computer or get changed and go to computer programming. I do computer programming because I enjoy playing around with software and also I have had past experience on it because I always watch my brother on the computer whilst he is making new programmes as project and so I would know quite a bit about making them. I like computers so much that I am thinking about taking a career towards those lines. On a Tuesday (half day) once I have finished computer programming I will go to badminton for an hour, but if it is a Thursday I will go and hang around with my friends. After badminton I come back to the house, have a shower and then go and hang out with my friends. I come back to the house after five always finding someone in the house yard to play a game of football with. I go to tea at six oclock. I think that in our house tea is the nicest meal. As soon as I have finished I run outside and play football in the yard again but I would prefer being on holiday, as I would be out playing cricket or at home playing on the Playstation 2. I have always loved holidays and going home for them. When I am at home it is so relaxing and there is not much work to be dont and if there is then it can be done when I am bored. I go upstairs at seven oclock get my books for the subjects that I have prep to do for and then go downstairs to the worker and do my prep there. This is the part of the day, which I find most boring and when I wish that I was at home. I go downstairs and watch TV for a while after prep, but if nothing interesting is on I go and play on my computer. At this point if I was at home I would be going out with my friends. I go upstairs from the TV room to my room at half ten if I was downstairs to get ready for bed. At quarter to eleven it is lights out. I hate going to bed so early if I was home Id still be out with my friends. I like going out at night. I find the vibe that is around you at night is amazing. When I go out at night it would probably be going to the cinema, playing pool at a club called Rileys or to the pub.

Closing the Achievement Gap Essay -- Education, Minorities

Closing the Academic Achievement Gap Crisis in America The Achievement Gap in America has separated and divided America's youth into more or less, two different cultures of socioeconomic placement. The first being the predominantly Caucasian students at American elementary schools, high schools, and colleges that excel greatly in their education. Most of the time earning them middle to upper class jobs in the economy, the aforementioned group contrasts significantly with its opposite culture of American youth. The second culture, the population that is mostly made up of the minority races, takes it's place in the American education system as the population of students who are less interested in getting a decent education and taking advantage of the resources that are offered, for various underlying reasons. This in turn manufactures less people of this type of culture to be readily available for higher paying jobs, and often times unemployable for a job at all. The Achievement G ap in America is influenced by many cultural, environmental, and socioeconomic factors that separate lower and higher achieving students based on these factors, and leave a high amount of unemployed Americans as a result, if not incarcerated or deceased. The first issue that has been identified as a significant problem involved in the Achievement gap, is that it is partially the fault of America's educational system. Because of the suffering economy that has spurred the increasing lack of basic necessities in schools across America, there are an increasing number of children who are not being properly educated. Whether it is a deficiency in supplies, poor teacher selection, or administration and staff who are indifferent to the students at their sch... ...ell can work together to solidify the learning environment for the student in need and create a better learner as a result. In conclusion, the Academic Achievement has been fueled by society's presets, minority students' lack of effort, and the failures of the schooling system in America. There has been some challenging setbacks, but the Gap can be fixed to create a common ground for all prospective members of America's society to excel on equally. By realizing that change can be achieved, there are little to no limits for minority students to create a better mindset towards education. Students, parents, and teachers have to be willing to work together, as well as tackle obstacles upheld by society, and the economic deficiencies that effect schools across America. This will, in turn, take America one step closer to closing the Academic Achievement Gap in America.

Cultural Democracy

Cultural democracy – Summary This is the summary of the conference or debate between the two speakers Mr. Jerry Sambuaga and Mr. Lee Nathanael Santoso, discussing the topic of Cultural Democracy. The first topic that is discussed was on the ideal form of democracy. Mr. Jerry said that the ideal form of democracy is the one that prioritize freedom, to have liberalism implemented, which will eventually lead to individualism. In his opinion liberalism should be implemented in all aspects, such as in politics and economy.The examples of liberalism in politics are presidential election or parties, whereas the example of liberalism in economy is human rights. The freedom of speech, freedom to express opinions, since 1998, is the key to liberalism (direct democracy). On the other hand, when discussing the topic on the ideal form of democracy, Mr. Nathanael raises up the question â€Å"Whether democracy is universal or locally? † as his comeback. People now have human rights, t he right to choose what they think democracy is. He said that in Singapore the government plays a larger role compared than the role of freedom of speech (representative democracy).Mr. jerry said that democracy is invented in the west, and the democracy in Indonesia is still very fragile, there are aspects that have not yet been touched such as civil society, law enforcement, etc. There is a statement that Mr. Jerry gave that Mr. Nathanael also agrees on, and that is â€Å"Democracy is not a destination but a goal†. Mr. Nathanael added that democracy indeed is a mean or a goal, and the goal is not democracy but to make sure that every people have basic necessities (security, etc). Mr.Nathanael asked a rhetorical question, † which political system that can guarantee their country to be flexible enough to attain political grid lock? † From his point of view, Singapore is the closest one that has been able to achieve this. The second topic that the moderator discusse d was, â€Å"Should a country this big (Indonesia) use a federal system or a unitary system? † Mr. Nathanael said that our country should adopt a mix of the two systems. From Mr. jerry's point of view, Indonesia should use a federal system, because Indonesia is very diverse, if we force something it can cause damages. Mr. Nathanael debated Mr.Jerry's statement by saying that Singapore also has diversity, but they know how to harmonized the different point of views, opinions, etc. He said, â€Å"Minorities and other ethnicity receive the right to take part, to give a voice. † Mr. Jerry debated Mr. Nathanael’s statement by saying that Singapore has an oppressive or an authoritarian system, instead of having a freedom of speech. â€Å"Singapore has a good system but can it last with that system? Indonesia may not yet be successful now, but with the existence of liberty, and opportunity given for people to be able to govern, may lead Indonesia to become a developed country. Mr. Nathanael debated Mr. Jerry’s statement saying, â€Å"The authoritarian system in Singapore is different compared to China, in Singapore the law is clear, you can have a say on criticizing the government, but you must have facts to support it. Mr. Jerry’s opinion is that our country is best suited with having a little number parties, because a large number of parties slows down decision making, and does nut suit the presidential system. While Mr. Nathanael said that democracy is not about political parties, part of government,  it is about achieving national interests.He said that, â€Å"only the parties with money that can win (in indo), but in Singapore if you have a good vision you will be heard†. â€Å"Should democracy control freedom? † Mr. Jerry said that one’s freedom of expression could violate another's freedom of expression. Freedom should be controlled but not limited. Democracy may not be the best system, but it is stil l better to educate the people to participate. He added, â€Å"Freedom of rights of Singapore must be developed. † Mr. Nathanael commented, â€Å"Singapore are convinced that this is the system for them, the issue is Singapore’s system should be more relevant. Singapore’s human rights can’t be compared with Indonesia’s priority of economic prosperity. Cultural Democracy Critical Analysis Cultural Democracy is the term for a philosophy or policy emphasizing pluralism, participation, and equity within and between cultures. Which consists of a set of related commitments such as, protecting and promoting cultural diversity, and the right to culture for everyone in our society and around the world;? encouraging active participation in community cultural life;? enabling people to participate in policy decisions that affect the quality of our cultural lives; and ? ssuring fair and equitable access to cultural resources and support. There are three basic types of democracy: Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, Representative democracy involves the selection of government officials by the people being represented, and Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by representatives as opposed to a ‘presidential rule' wherein the President is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters.In my opinion, I think the ideal form of democracy should be the one where liberalism is highly considered, but where there is also a balance in government involvement. Because, as the people, we know what our country needs most, but with the diversity that our country possess, and with the different opinions that people have, there should be a representative democracy that can represent the people and chooses the best decisions for the people and the country. Should democracy control freedom?I think that freedom is both a positive and a negative think, if not controlled properly. People have different opinions, and if all of them have the freedom of speech, then there will be a moment where their freedom of expression will clash with others’ freedom of expression. That is why that freedom should also be controlled to a point of degree where people would still have the freedom of speech. The main reason why Indonesia has not been able to reach its full potential is because we have weak institutions, hence weak democracy.Indonesia should learn the complexity that is democracy, the many aspects that is consists of such as  legal certainty, transparency, freedom, etc. The one thing that Indonesia should be able to do to improve as a country is by knowing how to prioritize. Of course, in democracy alone there are many aspects that it consists of, and to manage this by knowing which to prioritize first, to the extent where all the aspects will be covered one by one. Indonesia should be consistent in following or running a liberal system.Of course, there are processes that need to be done; we need to fight for the freedom of the economy. The best solution is to have a modification based on the aspiration of the people. We should be able to learn, and adopt all the good elements that each country possesses, mix them up and implement them as our democratic system. By: Pamela Lemmuela (04320120057) FISIP/HI/2012 RESEARCH : ? Democracy? From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A woman casts her vote in the second round of the French presidential election of 2007 Part of the Politics series|Democracy| History  Ã‚ · Outline| Basic forms| * Direct * Representative| Variants| * Anticipatory * Consensus * Deliberative * Demarchy * Economic * Electronic * Grassroots * Illiberal * Inclusive * Liberal * Non-partisan * Ochlocracy * Participatory * Radical * Religious * Representative direct * Sociocracy * Soviet * Totalitarian * Other| Politics portal| * v t e| Part of the Polit ics series| Basic forms ofgovernment| Power structure| * Confederal * Federal * Hegemony * Imperial * Unitary| Power source| Democracy * Direct * Representative * Other * Monarchy * Absolute * Constitutional * Oligarchy * Aristocracy * Meritocracy * Military junta * Plutocracy * Stratocracy * Technocracy * Timocracy * Other * Anarchy * Authoritarianism * Autocracy * Anocracy * Despotism * Dictatorship * Kritarchy * Republic * Theocracy * Totalitarianism| List of forms of government| Politics portal| * v t e|Democracy is a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Democracy allows people to participate equally—either directly or through elected representatives—in the proposal, development, and creation of laws. It encompasses social, economic and cultural conditions that enable the free and equal practice of political self-determination. The term originates from the Greek (demokratia) â€Å"rule of th e people†,[1] which was coined from demos) â€Å"people† and (kratos) â€Å"power† in the 5th century BCE to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens; the term is an antonym to â€Å"rule of an elite†. The English word dates to the 16th century, from the older Middle French and Middle Latin equivalents. A democratic government contrasts to forms of government where power is either held by one, as in a monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals, as in an oligarchy or aristocracy.Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic, and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a revolution. [2] Several variants of democracy exist, but there ar e two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of citizens executes its will. One form of emocracy is direct democracy, in which citizens have direct and active participation in the decision making of the government. In most modern democracies, the whole body of citizens remain the sovereign power but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called representative democracy. The concept of representative democracy arose largely from ideas and institutions that developed during the European Middle Ages, the Age of Enlightenment, and the American and French Revolutions. [3] Contents   [hide]   * 1 Definition * 2 History * 2. Ancient origins * 2. 2 Middle Ages * 2. 3 Modern era * 3 Countries * 4 Types * 4. 1 Basic forms * 4. 2 Variants * 4. 3 Non-governmental * 5 Theory * 5. 1 Aristotle * 5. 2 Rationale * 5. 3 Ideal forms * 5. 4 Practice * 5. 5 Criticism * 6 Development * 7 See also * 8 References * 9 External links| [edit] Defini tion While there is no universally accepted definition of â€Å"democracy,†[4] equality and freedom have both been identified as important characteristics of democracy since ancient times. 5] These principles are reflected in all citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a representative democracy, every vote has equal weight, no unreasonable restrictions can apply to anyone seeking to become a representative, and the freedom of its citizens is secured by legitimized rights and liberties which are generally protected by a constitution. [6][7] One theory holds that democracy requires three fundamental principles: 1) upward control, i. e. overeignty residing at the lowest levels of authority, 2) political equality, and 3) social norms by which individuals and institutions only consider acceptable acts that reflect the first two principles of upward control and political equality. [8] The term â€Å"democracy† is sometimes used as shorthand for liberal democracy, which is a variant of representative democracy that may include elements such as political pluralism; equality before the law; the right to petition elected officials for redress of grievances; due process; civil liberties; human rights; and lements of civil society outside the government. [citation needed] In the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a central attribute, but in other countries, such as the United Kingdom, the dominant principle is that of parliamentary sovereignty (while maintaining judicial independence). [citation needed] In other cases, â€Å"democracy† is used to mean direct democracy. Though the term â€Å"democracy† is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles also are applicable to private organizations. Majority rule is often listed as a characteristic of democracy. by whom? ] Hence, democracy allows for political minorities to be oppressed by the â₠¬Å"tyranny of the majority† in the absence of legal protections of individual or group rights. An essential part of an â€Å"ideal† representative democracy is competitive elections that are fair both substantively[9] and procedurally. [10] Furthermore, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press are considered to be essential rights that allow citizens to be adequately informed and able to vote according to their own interests. 11][12] It has also been suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of individuals to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. [13] With its emphasis on notions of social contract and the collective will of the people, democracy can also be characterized as a form of political collectivism because it is defined as a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. [14] While democracy is often equated with the republic an form of government, the term â€Å"republic† classically has encompassed both democracies and aristocracies. 15][16] [edit] History Main article: History of democracy [edit] Ancient origins See also: Athenian democracy Cleisthenes, â€Å"father of Athenian democracy†, modern bust. The term â€Å"democracy† first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens. [17][18] Led by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508-507 BCE. Cleisthenes is referred to as â€Å"the father of Athenian democracy. [19] Athenian democracy took the form of a direct democracy, and it had two distinguishing features: the random selection of ordinary citizens to fill the few existing government administrative and judicial offices,[20] and a legislative assembly consisting of all Athenian citizens. [21] All citizens were eligible to speak and vote in the assembly, which set the laws of the city st ate. However, Athenian citizenship excluded women, slaves, foreigners ( metoikoi), and males under 20 years old. [citation needed] Of the estimated 200,000 to 400,000 inhabitants of Athens, there were between 30,000 and 60,000 citizens. citation needed] The exclusion of large parts of the population from the citizen body is closely related to the ancient understanding of citizenship. In most of antiquity the benefit of citizenship was tied to the obligation to fight war campaigns. [citation needed] Athenian democracy was not only direct in the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also directest in the sense that the people through the assembly, boule and courts of law controlled the entire political process and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business. 22] Even though the rights of the individual were not secured by the Athenian constitution in the modern sense (the ancient Greeks had no word for â€Å"rights†[23]), the Athenians enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the government but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being subjects themselves to the rule of another person. [24] Even though the Roman Republic contributed significantly to certain aspects of democracy, only a minority of Romans were citizens with votes in elections for representatives.The votes of the powerful were given more weight through a system of gerrymandering, so most high officials, including members of the Senate, came from a few wealthy and noble families. [25] However, many notable exceptions did occur. [citation needed] [edit] Middle Ages During the Middle Ages, there were various systems involving elections or assemblies, although often only involving a small amount of the population, the election of Gopala in Bengal region of Indian Subcontinent (within a aste system), the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (10% of population), the Althing in Iceland, the Logting in the Faero e Islands, certain medieval Italian city-states such as Venice, the tuatha system in early medieval Ireland, the Veche in Novgorod and Pskov Republics of medieval Russia, Scandinavian Things, The States in Tirol and Switzerland and the autonomous merchant city of Sakai in the 16th century in Japan. However, participation was often restricted to a minority, and so may be better classified as oligarchy.Most regions in medieval Europe were ruled by clergy or feudal lords. The Kouroukan Fouga divided the Mali Empire into ruling clans (lineages) that were represented at a great assembly called the Gbara. However, the charter made Mali more similar to a constitutional monarchy than a democratic republic. A little closer to modern democracy were the Cossack republics of Ukraine in the 16th–17th centuries: Cossack Hetmanate and Zaporizhian Sich. The highest post – the Hetman – was elected by the representatives from the country's districts.Magna Carta, 1215, England The Parliament of England had its roots in the restrictions on the power of kings written into Magna Carta, which explicitly protected certain rights of the King's subjects, whether free or fettered – and implicitly supported what became English writ of habeas corpus, safeguarding individual freedom against unlawful imprisonment with right to appeal. The first elected parliament was De Montfort's Parliament in England in 1265.However only a small minority actually had a voice; Parliament was elected by only a few percent of the population, (less than 3% as late as 1780[26]), and the power to call parliament was at the pleasure of the monarch (usually when he or she needed funds). The power of Parliament increased in stages over the succeeding centuries. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the English Bill of Rights of 1689 was enacted, which codified certain rights and increased the influence of Parliament. 26] The franchise was slowly increased and Parliament gradually gaine d more power until the monarch became largely a figurehead. [27] As the franchise was increased, it also was made more uniform, as many so-called rotten boroughs, with a handful of voters electing a Member of Parliament, were eliminated in the Reform Act of 1832. In North America, the English Puritans who migrated from 1620 established colonies in New England whose governance was democratic and which contributed to the democratic development of the United States. 28] [edit] Modern era [edit] 18th and 19th centuries The first nation in modern history to adopt a democratic constitution was the short-lived Corsican Republic in 1755. This Corsican Constitution was the first based on Enlightenment principles and even allowed for female suffrage, something that was granted in other democracies only by the 20th century. In 1789, Revolutionary France adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and, although short-lived, the National Convention was elected by all males in 1792. [29]The establishment of universal male suffrage in France in 1848 was an important milestone in the history of democracy. Universal male suffrage was definitely established in France in March 1848 in the wake of the French Revolution of 1848. [30] In 1848, several revolutions broke out in Europe as rulers were confronted with popular demands for liberal constitutions and more democratic government. [31] Although not described as a democracy by the founding fathers, the United States founders also shared a determination to root the American experiment in the principle of natural freedom and equality. 32] The United States Constitution, adopted in 1788, provided for an elected government and protected civil rights and liberties for some. In the colonial period before 1776, and for some time after, often only adult white male property owners could vote; enslaved Africans, most free black people and most women were not extended the franchise. On the American frontier, democracy became a way of life, with widespread social, economic and political equality. 33] However, slavery was a social and economic institution, particularly in eleven states in the American South, such that a variety of organizations were established advocating the movement of black people from the United States to locations where they would enjoy greater freedom and equality. In the 1860 United States Census the slave population in the United States had grown to four million,[34] and in Reconstruction after the Civil War (late 1860s) the newly freed slaves became citizens with (in the case of men) a nominal right to vote.Full enfranchisement of citizens was not secured until after the African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968) gained passage by the United States Congress of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. [35][36] [edit] 20th and 21st centuries The number of nations 1800–2003 scoring 8 or higher on Polity IV scale, another widely used measure of democracy. 20th cent ury transitions to liberal democracy have come in successive â€Å"waves of democracy,† variously resulting from wars, revolutions, decolonization, religious and economic circumstances.World War I and the dissolution of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires resulted in the creation of new nation-states from Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic. In the 1920s democracy flourished, but the Great Depression brought disenchantment, and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia turned to strong-man rule or dictatorships. Fascism and dictatorships flourished in Nazi Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal, as well as nondemocratic regimes in the Baltics, the Balkans, Brazil, Cuba, China, and Japan, among others. 37] World War II brought a definitive reversal of this trend in western Europe. The democratization of the American, British, and French sectors of occupied Germany (disputed[38]), Austria, Italy, and the occupied Japan served as a model for the la ter theory of regime change. However, most of Eastern Europe, including the Soviet sector of Germany fell into the non-democratic Soviet bloc. The war was followed by decolonization, and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions. India emerged as the world's largest democracy and continues to be so. 39] By 1960, the vast majority of country-states were nominally democracies, although most of the world's populations lived in nations that experienced sham elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in Communist nations and the former colonies. ) A subsequent wave of democratization brought substantial gains toward true liberal democracy for many nations. Spain, Portugal (1974), and several of the military dictatorships in South America returned to civilian rule in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Argentina in 1983, Bolivia, Uruguay in 1984, Brazil in 1985, and Chile in the early 1990s).This was followed by nations in East and South Asia by the mid-to-late 1980s. Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of Soviet oppression, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the associated end of the Cold War, and the democratization and liberalization of the former Eastern bloc countries. The most successful of the new democracies were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now members or candidate members of the European Union. Some researchers consider that contemporary Russia is not a true democracy and instead resembles a form of dictatorship. 40] The Economist's Democracy Index as published in December 2011, with greener colours representing more democratic countries and clearly authoritarian countries in dark red. The liberal trend spread to some nations in Africa in the 1990s, most prominently in South Africa. Some recent examples of attempts of liberalization include the Indonesian Revolution of 1998, the Bulldozer Revolution in Yugoslavia, the Rose Revolution in Georgia, the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, the Cedar Revolution in Lebanon, the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, and the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia.According to Freedom House, in 2007 there were 123 electoral democracies (up from 40 in 1972). [41] According to World Forum on Democracy, electoral democracies now represent 120 of the 192 existing countries and constitute 58. 2 percent of the world's population. At the same time liberal democracies i. e. countries Freedom House regards as free and respectful of basic human rights and the rule of law are 85 in number and represent 38 percent of the global population. [42] In 2010 the United Nations declared September 15 the International Day of Democracy. 43] [edit] Countries The following countries are categorized by the Democracy Index 2011 as Full democracy:[44] 1. Norway? 2. Iceland? 3. Denmark? 4. Sweden? 5. New Zealand   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  | 6. Australia? 7. Switzerland? 8. Canada? 9. Finland? 10. Netherlands   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã ‚  | 11. Luxembourg   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ? 12. Ireland? 13. Austria? 14. Germany? 15. Malta| 16. Czech Republic   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ? 17. Uruguay? 18. United Kingdom? 19. United States? 20. Costa Rica| 21. Japan? 22. South Korea? 23. Belgium? 24. Mauritius? 25.Spain| The Index assigns 53 countries to the next category, Flawed democracy: Argentina, Benin, Botswana, Brazil, Bulgaria, Cape Verde, Chile, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Estonia, France, Ghana, Greece, Guyana, Hungary, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Latvia, Lesotho, Lithuania, Macedonia, Malaysia, Mali, India, Mexico, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Namibia, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Taiwan, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Trinidad and Tobago, Zambia[44] [edit]Types See also: List of types of democracy Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others. [45][46] However, if any democracy is not structured so as to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the separation of powers in its own favor, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy. 47][48][49] World's states colored by form of government as of 20111 Presidential republics2|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Semi-presidential republics2|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parliamentary republics2|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Single-party republics|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parliamentary constitutional monarchies|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Absolute monarchies|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Military dictatorships|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parliamentary constitutional monarchies in which the monarch personally exercises power|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Republics with an executive president dependent on a parliament|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Countries which do not fit any of the above systems| | This map was complied according to the Wikipedia list of countries by system of government. See there for sources. 2Several states constitutionally deemed to be multiparty republics are broadly described by outsiders as authoritarian states. This map presents only the de jure form of government, and not the de facto degree of democracy. The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another: many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a single system. [edit] Basic forms [edit] DirectMain article: Direct democracy Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. The supporters of direct democracy argue that democracy is more than merely a procedural issue. A direct democracy gives the voting population the power to: Landsgemeinde of the canton of Appenzell Innerr hoden, example for direct democracy in Switzerland 1. Change constitutional laws, 2. Put forth initiatives, referendums and suggestions for laws, 3.Give binding orders to elective officials, such as revoking them before the end of their elected term, or initiating a lawsuit for breaking a campaign promise. Of the three measures mentioned, most operate in developed democracies today. This is part of a gradual shift towards direct democracies. Elements of direct democracy exist on a local level in many countries, though these systems often coexist with representative assemblies. Usually, this includes equal (and more or less direct) participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law. [14] [edit]Representative Main article: Representative democracy Representative democracy involves the selection of government officials by the people being represented. If the head of state is also democratically elected then it is called a democratic republic. [50] The most c ommon mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or constituency), or represent the entire electorate through proportional systems, with some using a combination of the two.Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as referendums. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in the people's interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgment as how best to do so. [edit] Parliamentary Main article: Parliamentary system Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by representatives as opposed to a ‘presidential rule' wherein the President is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters.Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegat ion to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people. [51][52][53][54][55] Parliamentary systems have the right to dismiss a Prime Minister at any point in time that they feel he or she is not doing their job to the expectations of the legislature. This is done through a Vote of No Confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the Prime Minister from office by a majority support for his or her dismissal. 56] In some countries, the Prime Minister can also call an election whenever he or she so chooses, and typically the Prime Minister will hold an election when he or she knows that they are in good favor with the public as to get re-elected. In other parliamentary democracies extra elections are virtually never held, a minority government being preferred until the next ordinary elections. [edit] Presidential Main article: Presidential system Presidential Democracy is a system where the public elects the president through free and fair elections.The president serves as both the head of state and head of government controlling most of the executive powers. The president serves for a specific term and cannot exceed that amount of time. Elections typically have a fixed date and aren’t easily changed. The president has direct control over the cabinet, the members of which are specifically appointed by the president himself. [56] The president cannot be easily removed from office by the legislature, but he or she cannot remove members of the legislative branch any more easily.This provides some measure of separation of powers. In consequence however, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to block the other and thereby interfere with the orderly operation of the state. This may be the reason why presidential democracy is not very common outside the Americas. [56] A semi-presidential system is a system of demo cracy in which the government includes both a prime minister and a president. The particular powers held by the prime minister and president vary by country. 56] [edit] Constitutional Main article: Constitutional democracy A constitutional democracy is a representative democracy in which the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, and usually moderated by a constitution that emphasizes the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and which places constraints on the leaders and on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities (see civil liberties).In a constitutional democracy, it is possible for some large-scale decisions to emerge from the many individual decisions that citizens are free to make. In other words, citizens can â€Å"vote with their feet† or â€Å"vote with their dollars†, resulting in significant informal government-by-the-masses that exercises many â€Å"powers† associated with formal government elsewhere. [edit] Hybrid Some modern democracies that are predominately representative in nature also heavily rely upon forms of political action that are directly democratic.These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed hybrid democracies[57] or semi-direct democracies. Examples include Switzerland and some U. S. states, where frequent use is made of referendums and initiatives. Although managed by a representative legislative body, Switzerland allows for initiatives and referendums at both the local and federal levels. In the past 120 years less than 250 initiatives have been put to referendum.The populace has been conservative, approving only about 10% of the initiatives put before them; in addition, they have often opted for a version of the initiative rewritten by government. [citation needed] In the United States, no mechanisms of direct democrac y exists at the federal level, but over half of the states and many localities provide for citizen-sponsored ballot initiatives (also called â€Å"ballot measures†, â€Å"ballot questions† or â€Å"propositions†), and the vast majority of states allow for referendums.Examples include the extensive use of referendums in the US state of California, which is a state that has more than 20 million voters. [58] In New England Town meetings are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government. This creates a hybrid form of government, with a local direct democracy and a state government which is representative. For example, most Vermont towns hold annual town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have an opportunity to speak and by heard on political matters. 59] [edit] Variants [edit] Republic Main article: Republicanism In contemporary usage, the term democracy refers to a go vernment chosen by the people, whether it is direct or representative. [60] The term republic has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister. 61] The Founding Fathers of the United States rarely praised and often criticized democracy, which in their time tended to specifically mean direct democracy, often without the protection of a Constitution enshrining basic rights; James Madison argued, especially in The Federalist No. 10, that what distinguished a democracy from a republic was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very struc ture.What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted,[62] was that the government be â€Å"bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend. † As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the U. S. constitution, a woman asked him â€Å"Well, Doctor, what have we got—a republic or a monarchy? â€Å". He replied â€Å"A republic—if you can keep it. â€Å"[63] Queen Elizabeth II, a constitutional monarch. [edit] Constitutional monarchy Main article: constitutional monarchyInitially after the American and French revolutions, the question was open whether a democracy, in order to restrain unchecked majority rule, should have an elite upper chamber, the members perhaps appointed meritorious experts or having lifetime tenures, or should have a constitutional monarch with limited but real powers. Some countries (as Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan and Bhutan) turned powerful mon archs into constitutional monarchs with limited or, often gradually, merely symbolic roles.Often the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece and Egypt). Many nations had elite upper houses of legislatures which often had lifetime tenure, but eventually these lost power (as in Britain) or else became elective and remained powerful (as in the United States). [edit] Socialist Socialist thought has several different views on democracy. Social democracy, democratic socialism, and the dictatorship of the proletariat (usually exercised through Soviet democracy) are some examples.Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of participatory democracy and workplace democracy combined with a representative democracy. Within Marxist orthodoxy there is a hostility to what is commonly called â€Å"liberal democracy†, which they simply refer to as parliamentary democracy because of its often centralized nature. Because of their desire to eliminate the political elitism they see in capitalism, Marxists, Leninists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy implemented through a system of communes (which are sometimes called soviets).This system ultimately manifests itself as council democracy and begins with workplace democracy. (See Democracy in Marxism) Democracy cannot consist solely of elections that are nearly always fictitious and managed by rich landowners and professional politicians. —Che Guevara,  Speech, Uruguay, 1961[64] [edit] Anarchist Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyrannic or not. The only form of democracy considered acceptable to many anarchists is direct democracy.Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognized that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous. [65] However, anar cho-communist Murray Bookchin criticized individualist anarchists for opposing democracy,[66] and says â€Å"majority rule† is consistent with anarchism. [67] Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy. 68] Henry David Thoreau, who did not self-identify as an anarchist but argued for â€Å"a better government†[69] and is cited as an inspiration by some anarchists, argued that people should not be in the position of ruling others or being ruled when there is no consent. [edit] Demarchy Main article: Demarchy Sometimes called â€Å"democracy without elections†, demarchy uses sortition to choose decision makers via a random process. The intention is that those chosen will be representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large, and be more fair and impart ial than an elected official.The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and is still used in modern jury selection. [edit] Consensus Main article: Consensus democracy Consensus democracy requires varying degrees of consensus rather than just a mere democratic majority. It typically attempts to protect minority rights from domination by majority rule. [edit] Supranational Qualified majority voting is designed by the Treaty of Rome to be the principal method of reaching decisions in the European Council of Ministers. This system allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states.This might be seen as a form of representative democracy, but representatives to the Council might be appointed rather than directly elected. Some might consider the â€Å"individuals† being democratically represented to be states rather than people, as with many others. European Parliament members are democraticall y directly elected on the basis of universal suffrage, may be seen as an example of a supranational democratic institution. [edit] Non-governmental Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of communities and organizations.Many non-governmental organizations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are controlled by shareholders on the principle of one share, one vote. [edit] Theory A marble statue of Aristotle. [edit] Aristotle Aristotle contrasted rule by the many (democracy/polity), with rule by the few (oligarchy/aristocracy), and with rule by a single person (tyranny or today autocracy/monarchy). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to polity). 70][71] For Aristotle the underlying principle of democracy is freedom, since only in a democracy the citizens can have a share in freedom. In essence, he argues that this is what every democracy should make its aim. There are two main aspects of freedom: being ruled and ruling in turn, since everyone is equal according to number, not merit, and to be able to live as one pleases. But one factor of liberty is to govern and be governed in turn; for the popular principle of justice is to have equality according to number, not worth, †¦.And one is for a man to live as he likes; for they say that this is the function of liberty, inasmuch as to live not as one likes is the life of a man that is a slave. —Aristotle,  Politics 1317b (Book 6, Part II) [edit] Rationale Among modern political theorists, there are three contending conceptions of the fundamental rationale for democracy: aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy, and radical democracy. [72] [edit] Aggregative The theory of aggregative democracy claims that the aim of the de mocratic processes is to solicit citizens’ preferences and aggregate them together to determine what social policies society should adopt.Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on voting, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented. Different variants of aggregative democracy exist. Under minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens give teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not â€Å"rule† because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded.Joseph Schumpeter articulated this view most famously in his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. [73] Contemporary proponents of minimalism include William H. Riker, Adam Przeworski, Richard Posner. According to the theory of direct democracy, on the other hand, citizens should vot e directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socializes and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites.Most importantly, citizens do not really rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies. Governments will tend to produce laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter– with half to his left and the other half to his right. This is not actually a desirable outcome as it represents the action of self-interested and somewhat unaccountable political elites competing for votes. Anthony Downs suggests that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individual and governments.Downs laid out this view in his 1957 book An Economic Theory of Democracy. [74] Robert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision). He uses the term polyarchy to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy.First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation. [75] Some[who? ] see a problem with the wealthy having more influence and therefore argue for reforms like campaign finance reform. Some[who? ] may see it as a problem that only voters decide policy, as opposed to a majority rule of the entire population.This can be used a s an argument for making political participation mandatory, like compulsory voting or for making it more patient (non-compulsory) by simply refusing power to the government until the full majority feels inclined to speak their minds. [edit] Deliberative Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by deliberation. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregration of preferences that occurs in voting.Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups. [76][77][78] If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule. [edit] Radical Radical democracy is based o n the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society.Democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision making processes. [edit] Ideal forms [edit] Inclusive Main article: Inclusive Democracy Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for direct democracy in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i. . self-management in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in â€Å"Towards An Inclusive Democracy† and was further developed in the journal Democracy & Nature and its successor The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy. The basic unit of decision making in an inclusive democracy is the demotic assembly, i. e. he assembly of demos, the citizen body in a given geographical area which may encompass a town and the surrounding villages, or even neighbourhoods of large cities. An inclusive democracy today can only take the form of a confederal democracy that is based on a network of administrative councils whose members or delegates are elected from popular face-to-face democratic assemblies in the various demoi. Thus, their role is purely administrative and practical, not one of policy-making like that of representatives in representative democracy.The citizen body is advised by experts but it is the citizen body which functions as the ultimate decision-taker . Authority can be delegated to a segment of the citizen body to carry out specific duties, for example to serve as members of popular courts, or of regional and confederal councils. Such delegation is made, in prin ciple, by lot, on a rotation basis, and is always recallable by the citizen body. Delegates to regional and confederal bodies should have specific mandates. [edit]